Chalk Brood

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'Beekeeping Study Notes.' J.D. & B.D. Yates. (Modules 1,2,3,& 4.)

ISBN 0 905652-33-9

Required reading for the Intermediate exam.

Thoxxxs can supply it.
 
Phew - thanks RAB - (I was wondering how and where the plot was lost)! Here's a weird one though - a highly respected beekeeper around these parts suggested that a small trail of common salt on top of the frame bars could be efficacious in dealing with chalk brood.

Thats an established practice amongst a number of commercial bee farmers - I've heard them recommend it quite a few times. As they have to liquidise the salt to move it, the belief is that it sterlises the ?mouth parts?

Adam
 
Thats an established practice amongst a number of commercial bee farmers - I've heard them recommend it quite a few times. As they have to liquidise the salt to move it, the belief is that it sterlises the ?mouth parts?

Adam

Seems reasonable but only on my one experience when I found a pupa inside the White shroud on middle of the top bar of a brand new frame put on three days before.
 
'Beekeeping Study Notes.' J.D. & B.D. Yates. (Modules 1,2,3,& 4.)

ISBN 0 905652-33-9

Required reading for the Intermediate exam.

Thoxxxs can supply it.

Thanks Huntsman, you're a gentleman.
 
Re queen is the best way to sort out the problem,shook swarming does not work.
There was some research done with thymol spraying of the bee's by a couple of German beekeepers,it worked for a short while.

More about chalkbrood ................

FLOYD E. MOELLER and PAUL H. WILLIAMS
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Department of Plant Pathology, Colleges of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706

Introduction

CHALKBROOD disease of honey bees, Apis mellifera L., is caused by a fungus, Ascosphaera apis (Maassen ex Claussen) Olive & Spiltoir, originally known as Pericystis apis, that infects many insect species in the larval stage. Such species as alfalfa leafcutter bees, Megachile rotundata (F.) (M. pacifica), and alkali bees, Nomia melanderi Cockerell, may be affected by chalkbrood. Presently some uncertainty exists as to whether this is the same organism or whether specific strains exist.

The disease was noted in the early 20th century in Europe where beekeepers called it stonebrood or chalkbrood. The dead bee larvae were mummified and largely replaced by fungal mycelium, which gave them a grayish or chalky color, hence the name chalkbrood. Most of the European reports indicate that chalkbrood is seldom serious and that the bees will usually clean up the disease without special treatment (Claussen 1921). Weak colonies or colonies weakened by other diseases are most susceptible according to Deans (1940). Incidence of chalkbrood in parts of Germany was associated with the damp, cool oceanic climate (Dreher 1938).

Bailey (1963) reported that chalkbrood occurred only in Europe. However, Seal (1957) reported it in New Zealand. First official records of the occurrence of chalkbrood in the United States were from Utah on wild bees in 1965 (Baker and Torchio 1968) and from California on honey bees in the spring of 1968 in Tehama County. This first report was by Homer L. Foote, state apiary inspector of California, and was in a single apiary. Gerald Thomas of the University of California at Berkeley, Division of Plant Pathology, confirmed it (unpublished report). Since then, we have reports of the disease in Minnesota and North Dakota in 1969; Montana, Wyoming, and British Columbia in 1971; Florida in 1972; Wisconsin in 1973; and Illinois in 1975. Apparently the disease is now widespread in Canada and the United States.

Cool, humid weather conditions do not appear to influence the occurrence of chalkbrood disease. Curiously, many western states have been drier and warmer recently but have plenty of chalkbrood. Is this a more virulent strain of the fungus? (The inside of the active honey bee colony has a relatively constant humidity level regardless of climate.)

The occurrence of chalkbrood was thoroughly reviewed by Hitchcock and Christensen (1972).

The USDA Agricultural Research Service is currently investigating etiology and controls for chalkbrood in honey bees at Laramie, Wyoming; Madison, Wisconsin; and Tucson, Arizona. At Beltsville, Maryland, Dr. L. Batra of the Mycology Laboratory identified Ascospaera apis affecting leafcutter bees. His data have been turned over to Dr. Robbin Thorp of the University of California at Davis.

Life Cycle of Ascosphaera apis

The life cycle of the chalkbrood organism is not clearly defined in nature. This is one area that will be studied at Madison during the research on control procedures.

In culture, A. apis exists as a dense grayish-white mycelium containing aerial, surface, and subsurface hyphae. Surface hyphae are 4 to 8 microns wide, and vegetative nuclei are very small. It is morphologically heterothallic, that is, it has + and – strains (or male and female strains) that, when inoculated onto the same agar plate, will show a black line of spore cysts where the mycelia of the two strains make sexual union. No apparent morphological differences exist between the two types when seen in culture.

When the hyphac of compatible types come close together, some of the female hyphae produce large protuberances (ascogonial primordia) that elongate and grow toward the male hyphae. The formation of the ascogonium and its contact with the male hypha take only 15 to 20 minutes. The nutriocyte reaches maximum size in about one day and then begins a complex series of cell divisions and delineations that terminate in the formation of asco-spores contained in numerous spore balls enclosed in a spore cyst that appears black because of the thick, dark colored wall.

The spores of A. apis require a nearly anaerobic environment for germination, but the mycelium requires an aerobic environment for growth (Bailey 1967). Thus, optimum temperature for growth is about 30ºC (86ºF), and spores germinate best at 35ºC (95ºF). However, when the temperature is lowered to 25ºC (77ºF), oxygen can move more readily into the agar, which allows the mycelium to grow.

Bailey (1967) indicated that infection of the honey bee larva begins when chalkbrood spores are ingested with the larval food. However, the germinated spores are generally voided harmlessly with the feces because the mycelium cannot grow in the anaerobic environment of the gut. Spores apparently germinate in the lumen of the gut, especially at the hind end that does not communicate with the rectum until after the larva is sealed in the cell to pupate. Thus, Bailey (1967) contends that A. apis is rarely lethal unless larvae are chilled for a brief period shortly after sealing.

Transmission of spores may be by wind from mummies carried to the exterior of the hives. Spores could he picked up by foraging bees at nectar, pollen, or water sources and passed on to larvae in their food; or infection could be spread by adult bees with contaminated mouth and body parts. At Madison, colonies in outyards not showing chalkbrood in 1974 were requeened with queens reared in colonies at the homeyard that contained chalkbrood. In 1975, all these outyards showed some colonies with chalkbrood, an indication that the infection had spread to them via queens. In the spring of 1975, colonies clean in 1974 were requeened with queens purchased from a breeder who had chalkbrood in his outfit. During the summer of 1975, these colonies showed some chalkhrood, further evidence that queens may disseminate the disease. Spread via queens could account for the rapid spread throughout the country.

Toumanoff (1951) states that spores remain viable for 15 years.

Effect on Colonies

The effect of chalkbrood on colony populations is difficult to measure, though any disease that kills brood will directly affect colony strength. Chalkbrood in some areas and at some seasons may produce severe mortality of brood. For example, reports from beekeepers in the prairie provinces of Canada and certain localities in the United States have indicated severe brood kill from chalkbrood.

At localities where genetically inbred honey bee stocks are maintained (Madison, Wis., and formerly Davis, Calif.), chalkbrood may cause alarming losses of brood. The inbred lines are often physiologically weaker and seem to be excellent targets for chalkbrood. It is likely that strains of bees vary in their susceptibility to chalkbrood. At Madison and elsewhere, mortality has been high among drone larvae.

Other stress factors seem to influence the development of chalkbrood. In 1975, sacbrood disease common over the years in some inbred lines at Madison, was not noted; instead chalkbrood was present. Does this mean that larvae weakened by sacbrood virus succumb to chalkbrood fungus before the sacbrood can be noted?

Peculiarities of Chalkbrood Affecting Research

Chalkbrood disease is particularly difficult for the researcher because the active disease can only be identified by mummies in the brood cells (white, gray, or black). Also, evaluation of inoculation or treatment is difficult because of the tendency of colonies to remove all traces of diseased material following hive manipulation or requeening, or during heavy sirup feeding or honey flows. Some strains of bees that are heavy propolizers sometimes propolize chalkbrood mummies into the cells. We do not know the final disposition of such propolized mummies. Propolized mummies may serve as a reservoir for infection at a later time.

Chemotherapeutic Tests to Date

A laboratory study with caged bees was made at Madison in February 1974 to determine the effect of the fungicide benomyl on Nosema apis Zander. A report of this research follows but is not intended as a recommendation to beekeepers. Benomyl (methyl-l-(butylcarbamoyl) -2- benzimidazolecarbamate) fed in sugar sirup had no effect on Nosema apis at any level from 250 to 2000 ppm. However, the results furnished information concerning the toxicity of benomyl to adult honey bees that was useful in testing the material for control of chalkbrood fungus. At 250 ppm, benomyl was not toxic to adult bees, but 500, 1000, and 2000 ppm did increase bee mortality. Earlier Giauffret and Taliercio (1967) had described the effect of thiabendazole (2-(4-thiazolyl) benzimidazole) on Ascosphaera apis and suggested that 500 ppm was nontoxic to brood. We therefore tested both benomyl and thiabendazole in August 1974 for possible use in controlling chalkbrood of honey bees.

The treatments were administered to chalkbrood infected nucs and small colonies as follows:

Dosages:
0.5 g/liter of thiabendazole
= 500 ppm thiabendazole in water.
0.5 g/liter of Benlate® = 250 ppm benomyl in water.

Treatments:
1. Spray bees and interior of hive at weekly intervals and repeat 3 times; use materials suspended in water.
2. Feed material in dust: 0.5 g/2 lb. soybean flour.

Tests:
4 replicates of each of treatments 1 and 2 = 8 units (nucs) for each material or a total of 16 units.
4 check units (total 20 test units).

In addition, the soil around the area where colonies are kept for queen rearing was sprayed weekly with Benlate, 1 g/liter of water. Treatments were made on August 9, 19, and 23. No brood toxicity resulted from the use of the materials. Thiabendazole slightly improved and Benlate dust cleared the infection in the colonies. The same was not true with the nucs.

In June 1975, two more tests were made with benomyl feeding.

Test No. 1 was conducted with 3 groups of ten 4-frame nuclei set up June 10 on ethylene oxide-fumigated comb as follows:

Treatment 1 (check group). Bees shaken from chalkbrood-infected colonies directly into clean ETO-fumigated equipment and fed plain sugar sirup (0.9 gal) containing fumagillin (Fumidil B®) (ten 4-frame nuclei).

Treatment 2. Bees shaken from chalkhrood-infected colonies directly into clean ETO-fumigated equipment and fed 0.9 gal of sugar sirup containing 250 ppm benomyl (0.5 g Benlate/liter) plus Fumidil B (ten 4-frame nuclei).

Treatment 3. Bees shaken from chalkbrood-infected colonies into package cages. Bees were held off combs for 24 hours while feeding sugar sirup containing 250 ppm benomyl plus Fumidil B. After 24 hours, bees were hived in nuclei on clean equipment and fed plain sugar sirup with Fumidil B (0.9 gal) (ten 4 – frame nuclei). All package units had one pound of bees and a laying queen.

On June 23, all the check colonies except 3 showed 2 to 10 cells of chalkbrood. All but 4 colonies bulk-fed Benlate sirup continuously after being established showed no chalkbrood. The 4 infected units showed 1 to 8 cells of chalkbrood. All colonies held for 24 hours off the combs on Benlate sirup and subsequently hived and fed plain sirup showed no chalkbrood.

Test No. 2 was conducted with 4 package colonies set up June 10. All were heavily infested with chalkbrood. Two of the colonies were bulk-fed sugar sirup containing 250 ppm benomyl (1.8 gal). The other two were not so treated. On June 17, the two treated colonies showed no chalkbrood, and brood quality was excellent. The other two had numerous chalkbrood mummies scattered through the comb. On June 30, one treated colony was still clean; the other showed 3 cells of chalkbrood.

The treatment with 250 ppm benomyl appeared to have a positive effect in reducing chalkbrood.

At Madison, cooperative work with the University Department of Plant Pathology on chalkbrood disease is progressing. Currently we are testing both plant and mammalian systemic fungicides for their effect on the organism. Promising candidate materials will be tested in the field this summer. We plan to define more closely the life cycle of A. apis and the chalkbrood disease cycle.

REFERENCES CITED

Bailey, L. 1963. Infectious Diseases of the Honeybee. Land Books Ltd. London. 176 p.

Bailey, L. 1967. The effect of temperature on the pathogenicity of the fungus, Ascosphaera apis, for larvae of the honey bee. Apis mellifera. Proc. mt. Colloq. Insect Pathol. Microb. Control (Wageningen, 1966): 162-167.

Baker, G. M. and P. F. Torchio. 1968. New records of Ascosphaera apis from North America. Mycologia 60: 189-190.

Claussen, P. 1921. Entwicklungsgeschictliche Untersuchungen uber den Erreger der ais “Kalkbrut” bezeichneten Krankheit der Bienen. Arb. Biol. Reichsanst. Land Forstwirtsch. 10(6): 467-521.

Deans, A. S. C. 1940. Chalkbrood. Bee World 21(4): 46.

Dreher, K. 1938. Auftreten von Bienenkrankheiten in Niedersachsen und Braunschweig im Jahre 1937. Niedersachsische Imker 73(12): 282-284.

Giauffret, A. and Taliercio, Y. P. 1967. Les mycoses de l’abeille (Apis mellifera L.): etude de quelques antimycosiques [Fungal diseases of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.): study of some antimycotics]. Bull. Apic. 10(2): 163-174.

Hitchcock, J. D. and M. Christensen. 1972. Occurrence of chalk brood (Ascosphaera apis) in honey bees in the United States. Mycologia 64(5): 1193-1198.

Seal, D. W. A. 1957. Chalk brood disease of bees. N.Z. J. Agric. 95(6): 562.

Toumanoff, C. 1951. Lea Maladies des Abeilles. Revue Francaise Apic. Num. Spec. 68: 325 pp.
 
I
Oh dear, Finman,

I detect there is someone on the forum who is suggesting you are likely stressing your bees


Stupido. I am not your dear.

I had a bad chalk brood epidemy 10 years in my bee yard. Most hives had it and it bursted after long bad weather period.

Dear Oliver. I had that disease. I did not put it there.

I changed the bee stock from carniolan to Italians again. Then disease bursted from moderate to bad. I studied from internet all what I found and I undestood that tolerant genes is only way how to get ridd of it.

So I first bought new queens from different places to get new genes to the yard. I did not cleaned the bottoms so well that bees may get the disease.

Many professional beekeepers had very sensitive bee stock. Like one said, yhey have bot time to follow it.

I had a good Elgon queen in my yard and I took about 40 daughters from it. 80% of its descendants got the chalkbrood. Another good queen has only 20% sick desdendants.

2 years I killed every new queen which showed some sign of disease. After that it helped. Now after 10 years things are quite well.

Yes Oliver, I know a lot of chalkbrood and I know how to cure it. To me explanation "stressed" is not an answer.

Not your Dear Finman
 
BBG, you might also like this. Go to page 50.

http://www.irishbeekeeping.ie/beehealth/BeeParasites.pdf

Note under treatment she says; "..generally reducing stress benefits the colony.'

Pity I got attacked for saying something similar, but there you go.

Please also note in reading that some treatments available to beekeepers in the U.K. are not/yet licensed for use in the Republic of Ireland.
 
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What special I learned from varroa reports:

In South Africa the disease was allmost unknown. It came with varroa 10 years ago.

In Ethiopia they reseached do they have there chalkbrood and they found it only in drones.

So, I found too that one stage of disease is that drone area gets the disease but not workers. I I reared the disease resistant hives, the drone areas healed too. So I may find that it the drone area is porous, chalkbrood tolerancy is not good in that hive.
 
.
Here you see a drone frame to catch varroa. Part of brood are dead. Reason is chalkbrood.

When you have chalkbrood resistant hive, the drone area is even and no dead larvae. That is a one stage of disease even if worker brood do not have the problem.

kuhn.GIF
 
.
MAAREC is a consortion of 6 USA beekeeping universities . What maarec said about chalkbrood 2 years ago:

Infected larvae, stretched out in their cells in an upright position, are removed by nurse bees two to three days after symptoms first appear. Dead larvae (mummies) are often found in front of the hive, on the landing board, or in a pollen trap. In strong colonies, most of these mummies will be discarded by worker bees outside of the hive, thus reducing the possibility of reinfection from those that have died from chalkbrood. No treatment is presently available for control. In some cases, chalkbrood can be reduced by requeening colonies with a young queen.

https://agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec/h...redators-and-diseases/diseases-of-honey-bees/
 
Hivemaker and Huntsman thank you for the information very grateful.

I am being told most colonies have it and not to worry about the disease as it also shows what good housekeepers the bees are.

This said, bearing in mind what one poster has said about spreading to the whole district and in particular my healthy hives, the answer seems obvious and I should leave it where it is. Disease is disease?

Finman, thank you for your input and I wouldn't want to experience the problems You have had in eradicating it.
 
Finman,

I would never call you 'my dear'.

Oh dear (or dear me!) in the English language means expressing surprise.

Yes, I was surprised that it was suggested that your your chalkbrood problems should mostly be caused by bad beekeeping. I know that your beekeeping is exemplary.

I was just surprised that after your eloquent remarks of how to rid an apiary of this disease in post #7 and again in post #25, your experiences and expertise were severly dismissed by post #30 which said specifically that the bees need the spores and be under stress (indicating it was bad beekeeping).

I know you would not be cullling queens unecessarily and your nucs would not be 'stressed'. You are far too experienced for that.

So the 'Oh dear' was simply an expression of surprise that this should occur. I did put a comma after the word dear, to separate it from your name. I am sorry if the language use has misled you to think otherwise. I am on your side on this issue and agree with your words of wisdom wholeheartedly.

Regards, RAB
 
<Oh dear (or dear me!) in the English language means expressing surprise.>

Finman;

'Oh dear' expresses disappointment, not surprise.

Your English is pretty good considering how difficult you native tongue is for others to master.

Post away but be wary of bullies.
 
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I'm surpised you're still here, with your chip on the shoulder. Try reading the posts properly too. Finman may have a problem with the English language but he is good with it mostly, but your's is another altogether.:smilielol5::seeya:
 
<I'm surpised you're still here,>

That's because your bullying tactics haven't worked in trying to drive me off.

For someone into beekeeping who doesn't even know about Yates, you sure have a great opinion of yourself.
 
For someone into beekeeping who doesn't even know about Yates,

You see, there you go again. Your knowledge of me is zilch, yet you try to make up little snippets to try to justify yourself to yourself. Reading what the posts acually say would be good for you. Keep you busy for a while, no doubt?

Try posting about beekeeping, or is that too much to expect?:biggrinjester:
 
<Try posting about beekeeping, or is that too much to expect?>

I was indeed only posting about beekeeping until you decided to attack what I had to say with your snide comments.

It appears there is only one way and that's your way.
 
Looks pretty damning

Found this link and if I have read correctly, it looks like chalk brooders could be infecting wild leaf cutters too! Vice versa no doubt applies.

http://tinyurl.com/69g9wqv
 

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